Lejla Obradovic Salcin1,2, Daria Ostojic3, Vesna Miljanovic-Damjanovi1,2, Nataša Zenić4, Marijana Geets Kesic4
1University of Mostar, Faculty of Health Studies, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
2Clinic for Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University Hospital Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
3University of Mostar, Faculty of Medicine, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
4University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology, Split, Croatia
Prevalence and Correlates of Injury Occurrence in Basketball Referees: Preliminary Retrospective Study
Sport Mont 2025, 23(2), Ahead of Print | DOI: 10.26773/smj.250608
Abstract
Studies dealing with injury occurrence in basketball refereeing are scarce. The aim of this preliminary investigation was to retrospectively observe injury occurrence and analyze some specific predictors of injury in high-level basketball referees. The participants were basketball referees from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina (all males, n=39, 25–45 years of age, with more than 5 years of experience in basketball refereeing). Data were collected via structured, previously validated questionnaire, and the variables included specific sociodemographic factors, basketball refereeing factors, and medical (injury-related) factors. Differences between injured and noninjured referees were calculated via t tests and chi-square tests, whereas associations between predictors and injury occurrence (criterion) were evaluated via logistic regression for binarized criterion. Injury occurrence was relatively low, with only 15% of referees reporting an injury during the previous competitive season. A higher level of basketball refereeing (more advanced competitive level) was associated with a greater likelihood of being injured (OR=1.44, 95% CI: 1.02–1.98). Additionally, referees who used dietary supplements were more likely to be injured during the previous competitive season (OR=1.51, 95% CI: 1.01–2.05). Although preliminary, the results emphasize the need for structured prevention strategies and support systems tailored specifically to the challenges of high-level officiating.
Keywords
risk factors, protective factors, logistic regression, anatomical locations
View full article
(PDF – 261KB)
References
Al Attar, W. S. A., Khaledi, E. H., Bakhsh, J. M., Faude, O., Ghulam, H., & Sanders, R. H. (2022). Injury prevention programs that include balance training exercises reduce ankle injury rates among soccer players: a systematic review. Journal of Physiotherapy, 68(3), 165-173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphys.2022.05.019
Bjelanovic, L., Mijatovic, D., Sekulic, D., Modric, T., Kesic, M. G., Klasnja, A., . . . Versic, S. (2023). Injury Occurrence in Amateur Rugby: Prospective Analysis of Specific Predictors over One Half-Season. Medicina (Kaunas), 59(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina59030579
Corrigan, J., O'Keeffe, S., Whyte, E., & O'Connor, S. (2023). Injury prevention in ladies Gaelic football referees: Understanding the barriers, facilitators, and preferences of referees. Physical Therapy in Sport, 64, 8-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ptsp.2023.08.004
Fox, J. L., Stanton, R., & Scanlan, A. T. (2018). A Comparison of Training and Competition Demands in Semiprofessional Male Basketball Players. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 89(1), 103-111. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2017.1410693
Fulton, J., Wright, K., Kelly, M., Zebrosky, B., Zanis, M., Drvol, C., & Butler, R. (2014). Injury risk is altered by previous injury: a systematic review of the literature and presentation of causative neuromuscular factors. International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 9(5), 583.
Gabrilo, G., Ostojic, M., Idrizovic, K., Novosel, B., & Sekulic, D. (2013). A retrospective survey on injuries in Croatian football/soccer referees. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 14, 88. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2474-14-88
Garcia-Santos, D., Pino-Ortega, J., Garcia-Rubio, J., Vaquera, A., & Ibanez, S. J. (2019). Internal and External Demands in Basketball Referees during the U-16 European Women's Championship. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(18). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16183421
Garthe, I., & Maughan, R. J. (2018). Athletes and Supplements: Prevalence and Perspectives. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 28(2), 126-138. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0429
Heyn, J., & Fleckenstein, J. (2021). Incidence of injury and pain in referees in German national handball leagues: a cohort study. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation, 13(1), 88. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-021-00320-1
Huyghe, T., Scanlan, A. T., Dalbo, V. J., & Calleja-Gonzalez, J. (2018). The Negative Influence of Air Travel on Health and Performance in the National Basketball Association: A Narrative Review. Sports (Basel), 6(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6030089
Iglesias-Torres, E., Gonzalez-Artetxe, A., Scanlan, A. T., & Arcos, A. L. (2024). Differential ratings of perceived exertion to quantify weekly and sessional internal load in basketball: an exploratory team-based case series. Montenegrin Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.26773/mjssm.240309
Kordi, R., Chitsaz, A., Rostami, M., Mostafavi, R., & Ghadimi, M. (2013). Incidence, nature, and pattern of injuries to referees in a premier football (soccer) league: a prospective study. Sports Health, 5(5), 438-441. https://doi.org/10.1177/1941738113481428
Kozjek, N. R., Tonin, G., & Gleeson, M. (2025). Nutrition for optimising immune function and recovery from injury in sports. Clinical Nutrition ESPEN, 66, 101-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnesp.2025.01.031
Leicht, A. S. (2008). Physiological demands of basketball refereeing during international competition. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 11(3), 357-360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2007.05.006
Leicht, A. S., Connor, J., Conduit, N., Vaquera, A., & Gomez, M. A. (2021). Impact of Match Type on Exercise Volume and Intensity of Semi-Professional Basketball Referees During a Competitive Season. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 92(4), 843-850. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2020.1788207
Lima, Y., Devran, S., Oz, N. D., Webb, T., & Bayraktar, B. (2023). Examining the mental health status of referees in the turkish professional football league. Science and Medicine in Football, 7(3), 272-278. https://doi.org/10.1080/24733938.2022.2084150
O'Connor, S., Sherlock, L., Moran, K., & Whyte, E. (2022). Musculoskeletal Injury in Referees That Officiate Over Ladies Gaelic Football and Camogie. Irish Medical Journal, 115(2), 537.
Ochoa-Lacar, J., Singh, M., Bird, S. P., Charest, J., Huyghe, T., & Calleja-Gonzalez, J. (2022). How Sleep Affects Recovery and Performance in Basketball: A Systematic Review. Brain Sciences, 12(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12111570
Paula, D. A. G. d., Cunha, R. A. d., & Andreoli, C. V. (2021). Health problems of basketball referees: a prospective study. Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte, 27, 195-200. https://doi.org/10.1590/1517-8692202127022021_0128
Pojskic, H., Uzicanin, E., Suarez-Iglesias, D., & Vaquera, A. (2024). Cardiovascular Response and Locomotor Demands of Elite Basketball Referees During International Tournament: A Within- and Between-Referee Analysis. Sensors (Basel), 24(21). https://doi.org/10.3390/s24216900
Ruiz, A. J., Albaladejo-Garcia, C., Reina, R., & Moreno, F. J. (2024). Perceptual-Cognitive Skills of Basketball Referees: On-The-Court Visual Search Behavior. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 131(5), 1873-1893. https://doi.org/10.1177/00315125241278532
Sansone, P., Alonso Perez Chao, E., Li, F., Gasperi, L., Gomez-Ruano, M. A., & Conte, D. (2025). Contextual factors influencing basketball training and competition demands: a systematic review. International Journal of Sports Medicine. e-pub ahead of print. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-2533-0917
Selmanovic, A., Jeličić, M., & Dizdar, D. (2023). Relationship between Offensive Modalities and Results in Elite Basketball Games. Sport Mont, 21(2), 53-58. https://doi.org/0.26773/smj.230708
Škomrlj, J., Modrić, T., Sekulić, D., Bandalović, A., Turić, A., Bećir, B., & Veršić, Š. (2024). Longitudinal analysis of the incidence rate of injury in elite youth football: Trends over six years including the COVID-19 pandemic period. Physical Therapy in Sport, 66, 85-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ptsp.2024.01.006
Stojanovic, E., Terrence Scanlan, A., Radovanovic, D., Jakovljevic, V., & Faude, O. (2023). A multicomponent neuromuscular warm-up program reduces lower-extremity injuries in trained basketball players: a cluster randomized controlled trial. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 51(5), 463-471. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913847.2022.2133978
Suarez Iglesias, D., Leicht, A. S., Pojskic, H., & Vaquera, A. (2021). Impact of contextual factors on match demands experienced by elite male referees during international basketball tournaments. Journal of Sports Sciences, 39(8), 936-943. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1851902
Szymski, D., Opitz, S., Pfeifer, C., Rupp, M., Angele, P., Alt, V., . . . Krutsch, V. (2022). High injury rates and weak injury prevention strategies in football referees at all levels of play. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 32(2), 391-401. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.14083
Zaletel, P., Sekulic, D., Zenic, N., Esco, M. R., Sajber, D., & Kondric, M. (2017). The association between body-built and injury occurrence in pre-professional ballet dancers - Separated analysis for the injured body-locations. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 30(1), 151-159. https://doi.org/10.13075/ijomeh.1896.00818